Moral Theology free essay sample

Natural law can be defined as a set of principles, based on what are assumed to be the permanent characteristics of human nature, that can serve as a standard for evaluating conduct. It is considered fundamentally unchanging and universally applicable. Natural law holds that the basis for moral law, for what people should and should not do, is to be found in our nature as human beings. This means that what we are as human beings contains indications of how we should live (Harrington, D. 2009). Although the concept of natural law has been expressed differently by various philosophers all descriptions have a common thread; that man must live according to his true self (Varga, 1978). Although Aristotle did not use the term ‘natural law’ many medieval philosophers considered him as one of the first exponents of the fundamentals of natural law. Stoic philosophy was the first to introduce the term ‘natural law’ with the Stoics emphasising nature and the moral requirement to accept and conform to what is given in nature. We will write a custom essay sample on Moral Theology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This Greek philosophy spanned several centuries and greatly influenced the Roman philosopher Cicero. Cicero (d. 43BC) was a strong advocate of natural law and spoke of natural law as the innate power of reason to direct action. Catholic natural law theory was formulated by St. Thomas Aquinas over seven centuries ago. He identified one fundamental norm of natural law: do good and avoid evil. Doing good in this context is following reason’s lead to actualise human potential. According to Aquinas, law arises from man’s participation, via his reason, in the divine wisdom of God. In Catholic teaching, faith is presumed to assist reason in determining what is right and wrong, good and evil. A fundamental aspect of natural law is the belief that humans are essentially good. Therefore, the rationality which we employ in order to make moral judgements is also good. To live according to the law of nature is to live in accordance with what reason commands. However, Harrington notes that to say that natural law begins with reason reflecting on nature does not mean that everything is already written into our nature. If this were the case there would be no room for creativity, only for applying a formula. Natural law is the fundamental principle underpinning Roman Catholic morality, the Church uses natural law as the basis for its moral teachings pertaining to a just society, sexual behaviour, medical practice, the relationship between morality and civil law. According to natural law there are moral codes that are ‘universally applicable’. This is a major difference to moral relativism, discussed below, as relativism holds that morality is relative. Before taking a particular course of action, natural law advocates reflection on what the nature and purpose of human existence might have to say on the course of action. Harrington notes that this does not mean that every decision must be preceded by a prolonged reflection on what it is to be a human being, but that there is an underlying stream in our thinking that concerns how we understand what it means to be a human being in the world. Any potential decision can be assessed in light of natural law to determine its morality. If a planned course of action is immoral there can be no mitigating circumstances strong enough to render it moral. For example, according to natural law it is always wrong to kill another human being. It contravenes the first inclination to the good, the tendency to persevere in being. Under natural law abortion is an immoral act regardless of the circumstances. This immorality results from both the first inclination to the good and the second, i. e. the tendency towards procreation and education of offspring. Relativism takes a different stance; in certain circumstances abortion may be a moral act. To take an extreme example, the Catholic Church would not condone an abortion even in such circumstances as those of the 1992 case of Attorney General v. X, in which a fourteen year old girl was pregnant as the result of rape. The Supreme Court refused to apply the natural law in ruling that the girl had a right to an abortion, a decision condemned by the Catholic Church. Similarly, assisted suicide is an immoral act according to natural law irrespective of the benevolent intentions of those involved. Arguably assessing the morality of a decision under natural law is more straight forward than assessing morality applying relativistic principles, however grey areas do exist within natural law. The Catholic Church’s recognition of the role played by conscience and prudence is an acknowledgement of this. Harrington notes that â€Å"when morality is viewed from the perspective of the person, conscience is a central consideration†. The Church’s teaching on contraception derives from natural law. According to the Church contraception is wrong because it’s a deliberate violation of the design of God. The natural law purpose of sex is procreation, with the pleasure that sexual intercourse provides an additional blessing from God, intended to strengthen the bond between husband and wife. God’s gift of the sex act must not be abused by deliberately frustrating its natural end, procreation. Relativists would argue that natural law is wholly inflexible and takes zero cognisance of the culture or era in which it operates. However, if natural law is reason reflecting on nature then we do not reflect in a vacuum but our reflections are affected by culture; culture impacts out moral sensibility. This view allows natural law to be applicable in an ever-changing world. Our nature as human beings acts as a bedrock for continuity among all the changes in our situation. In the words of Harrington â€Å"there is no ‘objective’ formulation of the natural moral law, set in stone for all times and places and requiring nothing more than simple acquiescence on our part†. There is no formulation of right and wrong that can be advanced to end all debate. Opponents frame natural law in terms of a very rigid kind of moral thinking; however the definition of natural law as reason reflecting on nature implies that balance exists. It allows factors such as culture to have an impact on morality and in this way is similar to relativism. Although traces of relativism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy modern relativistic thought can be attributed to a response to imperialism and colonialism. In particular, the outbreak of World War One led to a questioning of the correctness of imposing norms and values on other cultures. Nietzsche, a German philosopher born in 1844 summed up the essence of relativism in saying There are no facts, only interpretations. Taken to the extreme, a moral relativist believes that there are no rights and wrongs. Therefore, if a person is a polygamist in a society where polygamy is permitted that practice is acceptable because it arises from that particular culture. Wong, D. (1993) gives the example of a society which contains more men than women due to war. Those who oppose moral relativism say that unless global society clearly defines right and wrong, for instance by prohibiting polygamy, we head down a treacherous path. Moral relativism broadly holds that morality is relative to the norms of one’s culture, thereby denying that any single moral code has universal validity. This represents the fundamental difference between natural law and relativism. Whereas natural law posits that there is a bedrock of morality that is constant, moral relativism holds that morality is relative; different truths hold for different people. The implication for decision making is that the morality of a decision should not be assessed in the abstract, but within the specific context in which it occurs. Morality in this form is perceived as a subjective social creation of particular people in a certain place and time. For the ethical relativist, there are no standards that can be universally applied to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a societys practices can be judged are its own. The doctrine of meta-ethical relativism states that moral truth and justifiability are not objective, but relative to factors of culture and history. Another type of relativism, normative relativism is a doctrine about how one ought to act towards those whose values are very different to your own. According to normative relativism there is no universal moral standard and one ought not to pass judgement on those who have different values, or to try to make them conform to one’s own values, as their values are equally valid. Arguably this position is incoherent, as it is unclear how meta-ethical relativism can lead to ‘ought not to’ statements. Cultural relativism holds that morality is relative to culture. What is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society’s customs. A cultural relativist could not strictly condemn the treatment of women in areas of fundamental Islam and practices such as female circumcision as they are norms within those cultures and accepted. Moral relativism does not see ‘good’ or ‘bad’ existing in the abstract; there is only goodness or badness within a specified context. Thus, an act which is bad when performed by a particular person in a particular set of circumstances may not be bad for another person in a different set of circumstances. For example, while it might be immoral to torture someone for information most of the time, if that information is withheld by a terrorist and could save the lives of many people (such as the location of a bomb) relativists would take account of these circumstances in assessing morality. This is in contrast to the natural law where some acts are objectively bad. Relativism does not merely say that what is believed to be right differs by cultural group, but that what actually is right differs. The problem with this argument is that if interpreted strictly it gives rise to a norm of absolute tolerance. Although the concept of tolerance is appealing on first glance, when given deeper consideration the problems therein become clear. For example, if genocide was happening in a country, absolute tolerance would not allow other countries to intervene. The demonstrates the need for some kind of universal moral principles such as those provided by natural law. Critics of moral relativism include Pope Benedict XVI, who has spoken out vehemently against relativism, describing it as the most profound difficulty of our time. Benedict XVI believes that Western society is firmly in the grip of moral relativity. He warned: We are moving toward a dictatorship of relativism which does not recognize anything as for certain and which has as its highest goal one’s own ego and one’s own desires. It is true that morality in Western society is generally thought to be up to the individual, with each person’s morality their own concern, a type of informal relativism. It follows from this that what is true for one person may not necessarily be true for another, and each person can decide what is true for them. Extreme normative relativism holds that no-one should ever pass judgment on others with different values, or try to make them conform to one’s own values. This ethic of non-judgemental olerance would self-destruct as it requires self-condemnation by those who act according to it. According to this viewpoint, if you pass judgment on someone who passes judgment then you must also condemn yourself. Wong points out that opponents of moral relativism usually address its most extreme versions, which hold that all moralities are equally valid. Relativism is sometimes associated with nihilism and a lack of any moral conviction under which everything is permitted. However, there are different shades of relativism. Wong goes on to say that a moral relativism that would allow for constraints on what could be a true morality might not fit the stereotype of relativism, and might be a reasonable position to hold. More moderate versions of relativism might be tenable. World War Two highlighted the necessity of sometimes passing judgment and acting upon it. The more reasonable form of relativism mentioned by Wong would allow us to pass judgment; to call evil or bad what contradicts our most fundamental moral values. He gives the example of human sacrifice, this could result in the value of tolerance being outweighed, and a person might intervene to prevent it. In looking at the merits of natural law versus relativism the question arises; are there such things as moral absolutes? Personally, I believe that there are a small number of acts that are fundamentally morally wrong, regardless of circumstances and culture. However, in the case of most moral acts some cognisance of the surrounding circumstances, era and culture should be taken in assessing morality. Bibliography: Harrington, D (2009) Is There a Natural Law?

Sports to Write About in College

Sports to Write About in CollegeThere are a lot of college football essay topics that you can write about. If you want to earn your degree and then get into the coaching profession, you should find the topics on sports to write about in college and beyond. You need to be very careful with what you write when it comes to sports to help you express yourself. You will be writing for your college English class, so there is a lot at stake in how you choose to write about your topic.The topic that you choose will affect how well you do in your college class, and if the school needs your services after graduation. If you want to win an essay, you must ensure that you use the information you have read from the sport to help you write your essay. If you write about how much the sport means to the culture, you will lose points because you did not be more specific about the culture you were writing about. Make sure you provide your knowledge on the topic and be very sure of your topic.If you wa nt to find the right essay topics on the sport, find out what the sport is. The sport may be popular or not. Sports like football, baseball, basketball, baseball, tennis, soccer, lacrosse, hockey, track and field, and horse racing can all have great essays for you to write. Sports are a great way to find essay topics because of the subject matter. Sports may have a history that makes the sports interesting, but the important thing is the subject matter of the sports.College football is one of the most popular sports, and it can be a very big subject. It is a sport that has a lot of history behind it and now has its own television show. If you want to be an essay writer on this topic, you need to know the history of the sport and how it has evolved through the years.A good college football essay topic can be easily written about using statistics. It is an easy topic to write about with statistics, and you can help show how the sport is important to the people who play it. These peopl e are the coaches and players, and they need to be convinced of the importance of the sport in order to play it, coach it, and have fans supporting them.College football essay topics are very important, and they need to be written about carefully. If you are thinking about writing a topic about the sport, ask around and see what people have written about the subject matter of the sport. You can get your opinion from people who have written about it already.Your topic should be simple, yet the content should be interesting and meaningful. People will be able to see the essay topics you write based on the topic of the essay, and they will be able to see how good of an essay writer you are when you do well on an essay. Use sports to find essay topics that are important to you. If you enjoy the sports you write about, you will do a good job of writing about it.Sports to write about in college are the most common topic that are used for essay topics, and they are some of the most fun to write about when it comes to football essay topics. Keep the game and the sport in mind when you research the topics, and you will be doing fine.

Inland Beach essays

Inland Beach essays Margaret Creal leaves us with plenty to ponder about as her use of symbolism is used to describe the strength and wisdom of women along with the miracle of birth. Margaret Creal uses symbolism to link the fragility of birth to the delicateness of life. Margaret Creal describes the scenery at the beginning to illustrate what the surrounding beach looks like, however we can also see that her description also resembles the miracle of birth. It is evident that the bay as representing the outside world and the ocean as being still in the women. The bay empties through a narrow neck into the ocean(153). This description of the ocean and bay resembles how babies are brought into the world. This description helps the theme of the story as it may not be possible for all readers to figure it out but it is pretty interesting when found. When Ben tries to get back in from the ocean to the bay he struggles and kicks rhythmically. This is the same as birth in life as it is always difficult to get the child out of the mother. I said, Im trying to come in, and I cant (154). The author only allows us to see the story through the mothers eyes so we can never completely get the full impact of what Ben feels as he is fighting to get back in. This directly reflects what happens when babies are thinking when they are brought into the world. The mood of the story changes dramatically as the mothers attitude changes rapidly as Ben is stuck in the ocean. The mother is very happy when she gets to the beach as everything is in order but she becomes very angry with Ben, as he does not listen to orders. She is in fear as she finally discovers that Ben is moving further out and he cant come back in. She then feels pain in her stomach when she thinks that Ben and she are going to die. In the end the mother is happie ...

Best Places to Study on a College Campus

Best Places to Study on a College Campus Finding a place to study on a college campus can be a challenge. Even if youre lucky enough to use your room for periods of time without having your roommate barge in, you still might need a change of scenery from time to time. Any of these places to study on campus can do the trick! Libraries Look for nooks and crannies in the undergraduate library. See if you can rent a carrel or small study room. Head to a floor youve never been to before. Check out the stacks and find a small table pushed against a wall somewhere. There are undoubtedly little spaces you can find that will help you focus on the task(s) at hand. Head to the medical, business, or law library for a completely different scene. Nice furniture, quiet study rooms, and nicer digs are much more common here, and youll be less likely to bump into- and get distracted by- people you know. Check out the smaller libraries on campus. Many large schools have tiny libraries scattered around. Ask for a directory of libraries and find one that is small, not busy, and perfect for getting some work done. Coffee Shops If you work best with some background noise and a distraction now and then, not to mention easy access to food and drinks, the campus coffee shop may be a good bet. Outdoor Areas When the weather is nice, reading out on a lawn can be a great way to get some fresh air, clear your mind, and still get some work done. If youre worried about running into people you know, head to a part of campus you and your friends dont usually visit. Classrooms Check out empty classrooms. You dont have to be in class to take advantage of a nice classroom: if a room is unoccupied, feel free to claim it as your own and get to work. Utilize the campus computer labs. You dont have to be using a computer to take advantage of the quiet atmosphere that most labs provide. Grab your work, your laptop, and an empty seat at a table and enjoy the lack of noise and distraction. Other Areas Camp out in the dining hall during off hours. When everyone is free for lunch, the dining halls are totally chaotic. But between meals, they can be quiet and peaceful. Grab a snack and enjoy the large table space you wouldnt otherwise have access to. Head to larger venues that arent in use. Large theaters or music halls often arent in use all the time. Head to one of these areas for some quiet time in a place that can help free your mind from distraction. Reading Shakespeare in an empty theater may be just what you need to get into your assignment! Use a Tutoring or Learning Center Peek into a writing/resource/tutoring/learning center. Many campuses offer resources for students working on projects. Even if youre not meeting with any of the centers volunteers or staff members, see if you can work there for a few hours.

Comparison of thinprep needle rinse samples versus direct smear Essay

Comparison of thinprep needle rinse samples versus direct smear techniques for fine neddle aspiration biopsies of head and neck lesions - Essay Example As a result, the pathologists and clinicians are to depend on the conveniences of a particular method that is most pertinent to the circumstance. A series of researches was led on the comparative diagnostic accuracy of the two techniques of FNA and their popularity among the clinicians and the pathologists (Frost et al, 1998). An analysis of the studies that have been led on the evaluation and the development of the techniques of Fine Needle Aspiration show an encouraging support for the ThinPrep technique of Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsies and trace the significant attempts in avoiding the pitfalls in the technique. In general, researchers are of the opinion that the accuracy of FNA at any site in the head and neck depends on both the skill and knowledge of the sites of the individual who will perform the FNA biopsies. As Layfield (2007) says, ‘Studies have shown that FNA is most accurate when the individual interpreting the FNA is the same individual who obtained the aspirate material’ (p. 798). In order to evaluate the performance of the FNA at the sites in the head and neck studies have had to revolve around the following questions: As far as the procedure of biopsy involves the obtainment of tissue, cell, or other specimen for diagnostic purposes, Fine Needle Aspiration has always played a crucial role as an initial technique of collecting them from a number of sites of human body. Indeed FNA is applied at a number of sites within the head and neck. The pressing appeal of the technique lies in several factors such rapidity, inexpensiveness, high convenience, low morbidity and necessarily in a relatively high diagnostic accuracy (Lester 2007). The amenability that areas in the head and neck show to this technique is mainly due to its capability to overcome the structural obstructions and barriers of the sites such as

Occupational hygiene survey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Occupational hygiene survey - Essay Example The weight of dust sample was used to determine the exposure level of dust. Besides, the samples were chemically analyzed to determine the level of resin acids. In addition to that the details of the subject, environmental factor like temperature and relative humidity was recorded Air samples were collected too for analysis of microbiological content. Sampling was done several areas. Samples were collected simultaneously for a sampling period of 5 minutes. A sample was collected outside the gate of the factory to be a representative of ambient condition. Samples were then sent back to the laboratory for analysis. A seven-hole inhalable dust sampler (JS holdings, UK) was used to collect dust sample. The sampler was with 0.45m pore sizes, 25mm diameter Teflon Filters (Costar). This device was used to collect sample inhalable, as if inhalation through one's nose. The resemblance of the mechanism allowed study on health hazards by the dust inhaled. Teflon filter were used in order to collect particles for resin acids analysis. In the study, air was drawn through the sampler at the speed of 2 litre/minute. Four samples were taken for each location respectively. The weight of dust was determined by subtracting the pre-weight of the filter from the post-weight. All the weight measurement was conducted on the micto-balance (0.001mg sensitivity). Samples were equilibrated to the same temperature and relative humidity. All readings were taken at temperature 20+0.5 C and 50% relative humidity. Resin Acid Analysis There are two categories of resin acids: abietic and pimaric acid. The amount of acids exist in the dust depends on the species, maturity and storage condition. Method used to analyze resin acid was developed by Victor Leong and Mary Ellen Cassinelli (Pengelly, 1994). The quantity of abietic and pimaric acid was determine by a gas chromatography methodology. From the previous analysis, the Teflon filters were shifted into 100mm glass tubes with phenolic caps. 3ml of dichloromethane was used to extract the filters under ultrasonic bath for 30minutes. The extract was filtered with 24mm diameter 0.45 m pore nylon syringe filters. It was then washed with 0.5 ml of dichlorometh

Gay Rights Essay -- essays research papers

Gay Rights Two men are walking down the street very peacefully until they decide to kiss one another right out in the open. Some people look upon this as weird and others look upon it in disgust. Some even get angry about it. Is there a problem with what these men just did? Should they be left alone or reprimanded for what they have done? The issue of gay rights is very cloudy in our great nation. Most of this is due to the problems with the issue, the reasons for controversy, and pros and cons of the issue. First of all, both sides have too many problems with gay rights for there to be a common ground on the issue. The biggest problem I find with the whole thing is the problem is not just fought by words, but also by physical means. There have been countless gay beatings across the United States. One instance took place on November 17, 2001. â€Å"Police said the 42-year-old Vancouver man, whose injuries indicate he was beaten several times with a baseball bat, might have been the victim of a hate crime† (HateWatch.org). Even though the number of hate crimes has gone down, a poll was taken and â€Å"Nearly 4 out of every 10 homosexuals polled said they fear that anti-gay violence will be directed against them personally, and 32 percent said they've been physically attacked because they are homosexual.† (HateWatch.org). On the other hand, being gay goes against the beliefs and values of some Christian churches. As stated in the bible: â€Å"Do you not know that the un righteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived. Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor homosexuals, nor sodomites, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners will inherit the kingdom of God† (Corinthians 6:9-10). Or another passage: â€Å"If a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination. They shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them." (Leviticus 20:13). With gays not backing down and religious people not backing down, this situation will have a difficult time being resolved anytime soon. Secondly there are many issues that do not help the problem at all, thus creating controversy around the situation. The first problem is the issue of gay marriage. All in favor believe that a gay couple should have the right to get marri... ...N. Equality practice : civil unions and the future of gay rights. New York: Routledge, 2002. Gallagher, John. Perfect enemies : the battle between the religious right and the gay Movement. Lanham [Md.]: Madison Books, 2001. Gil, Tony. Personal Interview. 4 Dec. 2002. Harris, Brandon. Personal Interview. 4 Dec. 2002. Kranz, Rachel. Gay Rights. New York: Facts on File, 2000. Minton, Henry L. Departing from deviance : a history of homosexual rights and emancipatory science in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Nomad. Ex-Gay Nomad. 4 February 2002 < http://members.aol.com/exgaynomad>. Richards, David A. J. Identity and the case for gay rights: race, gender, religion as Analogies. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Silverman, Bryan. Personal Interview. 4 Dec. 2002. Stein, Arlene. The stranger next door : the story of a small community's battle over sex, faith, and civil rights. Boston: Beacon Press, 2001. Thomas, Laurence. Sexual orientation and human rights. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999 Thompson, Andrea. â€Å"Pediatrics Endorse Gay Adoption.† NBC News and News Services <http://www.msnbc.com/news>.